Ethics and morale

Society is surrounded by conflicts and problems, which make it necessary to seek a higher authority to determine what is right. For a long time this authority was religion, which has lost its role in Western society today (Rubenis 2005, p. 10). Karl Marx even referred to sport as “the opium of the people”, a term used by sports critics to support the argument that it is sport that has become a substitute for religion in modern times (Kraft 2015, p. 231).

Morality is a system of principles, norms and values that determines what behaviour is considered good within a given society. The word moralis was coined by Cicero to translate the ancient Greek word ethikos, which means “that which pertains to character”, a person’s orientation towards a certain way of behaving and living (Rubenis 2005, p. 10). Moral ideals widely accepted in contemporary society include equality, justice, peace and human rights (Suchanek 2007, p. 42, Bockel 2013, pp. 33-34). Research shows that equal treatment is the most important moral principle for athletes (Patrick et.al. 2008, Cunningham et.al. 2016, Mahony 2016, p. 237). Morality in sport should be the foundation around which the sport development system is built, especially given that elite athletes are idols of the public and young people in particular (Teitelbaum 2005, Bockel 2013, p. 40). It should be noted that sport has some unique moral values that are not found outside sport. Sport encompasses a set of moral values that are unique to it (Russell 2007, p. 52). For example, sportsmanship is a moral term used only in sport and refers to the ideal of an athlete who embodies fair play, respect for opponents and courage.

The moral foundations of sport are determined by the fundamental principle of equality, namely that all participants are entitled to equal care and respect (Russell 2007, p. 57). If sport as a social movement can be properly understood and used, it has the potential to become the foundation of moral education in society. Historically, we can see how sport has promoted dignity, peace and social integration. For example, baseball in the USA opened the door to the elimination of racial discrimination (Jackie Robinson 1947). This example shows that sport can be an excellent moral role model for wider society (Russell 2007, p. 57). Sport has the capacity to be a public ‘moral laboratory’ for society where young people can learn the essence of concepts such as fairness, sportsmanship and respect (Simon, 2015, p. 29). On the other hand, sport loses its potential when the officials of the respective institutions act contrary to moral principles (Russell 2007, p. 64). Ethics is a philosophical theory that explores the relationship between good and evil, defines the concept of ‘good’, and justifies principles and criteria for good behaviour. Ethics changes in response to events, it is difficult to articulate in a definitive way, but it is impossible to avoid it because it is part of being. Ethics focuses on human action as a form of character expression that takes long-term effects as a reference point (Rubenis 2005, p. 12). In sport, ethics is an important area of applied philosophy in which ethical theories and principles are used to analyse and solve specific moral dilemmas (Sherry, Wood, Shilbury 2007, p. 268). Sport governance requires an approach that goes beyond simple compliance with legal regulation. Such an approach can be realised by putting in place mechanisms and initiatives that prevent ‘ethically imprecise’ situations – the practice that whatever is not prohibited is permitted. Integrity in sport means more than just following the rules, such as respect for the values and spirit of sport (Constandt et. al., 2020, p. 385).

The central question of good governance is based on what organisations should or should not do in governance based on ethical principles (Claringbould, Knoppers, Spaiij 2022, p. 63). Good sport governance is theoretically characterised by ethical principles such as respect, equity and solidarity. The ethic of fairness is based on the premise of equality – that all should be treated equally – while the ethic of care is based on the principle that no one should suffer (Claringbould, Knoppers, Spaiij, 2022, p. 63). The ethic of care should be strictly followed by the leaders of sport organisations in thinking about the logic of good governance and the legitimacy of their actions. The ethic of care can also be seen as an overarching moral principle that ensures that people are not exploited or used in unequal power relations (Machold, Ahmed, Farquhar 2008; Morrell 2006) and vice versa, that people do not use public services in a dishonest way. The ethic of care is used as a theoretical framework to challenge management approaches that are based solely on efficiency and outcomes. The ethic of care is more than a set of criteria for good governance: it is based on a relational model in which ‘caring’ is the ultimate goal of the organisation (Claringbould, Knoppers, Spaaij, 2022, pp. 63-65) .

While the global adoption of fully ethical sports practices seems a utopian goal, the European Union (EU) has the potential to make ethical sport the norm (Claringbould, Knoppers, Spaaij 2022, p. 65). As in medicine, it would be useful to combine the fields of ethics and law in sport education (Mc Namee 2015, p. 138). It would be appropriate if sport governance programmes, policies and activities that affect a broad section of society, especially young people and children, were based on scientific research. To achieve this, sport governance organisations need to engage with the scientific community and be motivated to learn, but for now this reality is far from reality. The conservatism and resistance to intellectual and data-driven approaches of sport institutions distracts from monitoring ethical issues. There is a lack of effective control mechanisms and knowledge to prevent continued unethical practices (Mc Namee 2015, pp. 135-137).

Communication on ethics is a component of moral leadership (Brown 2005, Heres 2022, p. 74). It is important to mention an area of ethics such as virtue ethics, the primary subject of which is human action that demonstrates a certain moral position. Virtue is an educational ideal that makes a person a decent person. It is not merely a habit or the result of social pressure, but a free choice to try to do what is morally right. (Rubenis, 2005, pp. 11-12).

The four cardinal virtues (virtus cardinalis) – wisdom, justice, courage and moderation – play an important role in Western ethical thought. For example, wisdom is the ability and willingness to know the truth and to make the right decisions without being misled by ideology (Rubenis, 2005, p. 13). These virtues are important because they form the basis of a just society where equality and respect prevail. John Rawls, the author of the theory of justice, hypothesised that rational people are capable of acting in the collective interest provided that society itself is just and fair (Bridge 2009, p. 101). The requirement to respect equality can be interpreted by justice theory as an expression of dignity and a precondition of justice (Surovtsev, Syrov, 2015, p. 177.).

Comparing philosophy with law, it can be said that moral norms are substantive norms, while ethical norms are procedural norms. Research shows that people often make moral decisions intuitively and then fail to explain their own actions, falling into “moral confusion” (Blasi 1983, Haidt & Hersh, 2001, Garrigan, et.al., 2018, p. 83.). Morality determines what action would be right, but individuals often consider their own self-benefit before acting. As people have different moral principles, the moral gap manifests in their actual actions (Surovtsev, Syrov 2015 p. 180). To find the status quo in such a situation requires a willingness to do the right thing and the ability to resist short-term temptations (Suchanek 2007, p. 42, Bockel 2013, pp. 33-34). When moral action conflicts with self-interest, it is easy to make the choice to cheat. In a dilemma where morality conflicts with self-interest, self-interest will win out in the main (Bockel 2013, p. 31, Blinmore 1994, p. 19). Ethics in such situations is like a whip and morality’s last hope. Behaviour that involves looking after one’s own interests is not unethical (Kluvera, Frazierb, Haidt 2014, p. 151). It is natural and human to care for them. The most important criterion is whether the public interest is harmed as a result (Lo Presti et.al., 2023, p. 3).